Nanocellulose from Agricultural Waste – A Concise Insight into Extraction and Applications (2025)

Introduction

Agriculturalproduction is forecasted to increase further to provide food to the burgeoningworld’s population as well as to meet the industrial needs and animal foodrequirements¹. The manufacture of biofuels had a substantial impacton rising crop consumption between the years 2000 and 2015². Thenegative social and environmental effects of extracting fossil fuels havestimulated the search for greener alternatives³. The recycling of severalbiomass wastes intended for high-value-added bioproducts (Figure 1) has gainedsubstantial attention recently for minimizing the environmental effect due tothe use of fossil-dependent polymers⁴.

Figure 1: Environmental benefits of using cellulose nanocrystals(adopted from Chaka, 2022)4. Click here to View Figure

Theproblems associated with the dumping of plastic and agricultural waste must beaddressed to protect the global ecosystem⁵. Biomass or agriculturalwastes have a significant potential to generate sustainable energy fromrenewable fuels⁶. Starch from cereals, mostly wheat, and maize, isused as the primary raw material to create ethanol⁷. Agriculturalwastes and natural plant fibers find application in composites because of theiraffordability, sustainability, and environmental friendliness⁵.Fruit peels and husks are potential cellulose reservoirs⁸. Celluloseis the most abundant organic substance and is almost an inexhaustible source ofraw material. The most prevalent natural biopolymer is cellulose, which can befound in agricultural wastes (straw, corncobs, corn stover, sugarcane bagasse,wheat and rice husks, coconut husks, maize straw, palm oil waste, and skins ofvarious fruits), tree trunks and dead forest matter (both hard and soft),energy crops, food waste, municipal and industrial bio-waste such as usedpaper, carton, and wood from the construction sites^9,10,11. Thepotential for making cellulose nanocrystals by using different extractionmethods from agricultural wastes is very high among biomass wastes⁴. Several types of agricultural wastes (Figure2) have been used for the extraction of cellulose nanocrystals⁴.

Figure 2: Common agricultural wastes useful for the extraction of cellulose nanocrystals (adopted from Chaka, 2022)4. Click here to View Figure

Biofuelsand biopolymers are two examples of value-added products that may be made fromlignocellulosic biomass¹². Researchers are actively focusing oncellulose nanofibers, also known as microfibrillated cellulose, cellulosemicrofibril, and microfibrillar cellulose, because of their encouragingnanocomposite applications¹³. Research trends are focused on findingpractical applications for lignocellulose, which is present in huge amounts inagricultural wastes. Biodegradability, low density, and superior mechanicalqualities make lignocellulosic materials quite interesting. Research intonanocellulose extraction from lignocellulosic biomass, notably fromagricultural leftovers, is extremely appealing because of nanocellulose’sremarkable qualities and potential future uses¹⁴. Recyclingagricultural waste helps to keep the planet clean and the value of agriculturalwaste is increased due to the extraction of nanocellulose¹⁵.Considering the increased research focus on nanocellulose, an attempt has beenmade to highlight the nanocellulose extraction from agricultural wastes andsubsequent applications in a concise manner with the help of publishedliterature.

Nanocellulosefrom Agricultural Wastes: Extraction and Applications

Nanocellulosemanufacturing began in 2011 in a small pilot facility and graduallynanocellulose is being manufactured on an industrial scale in a variety ofcountries throughout the globe using innovative techniques¹⁶.Extraction of cellulose from pre-treatments often forms either nanofibers ornanocrystals, depending on the usage of specific treatment and the majority ofthe literature discusses methods for extracting and purifying cellulose usingacid treatments³. Cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, and othernon-cellulosic components are included in lignocellulosic biomass and to ensurethat only cellulosic materials are used in the subsequent nanocelluloseextraction process, the pre-treatment of biomass is essential¹⁵. Acidhydrolysis is often performed to get cellulose nanocrystals after the alkalinetreatment and purification, whereas cellulose nanofibers are also obtained bymechanical treatments terminating in a high-pressure homogenization procedure³.Nanocellulose is often isolated from cellulosic materials using acid hydrolysisand it has been observed that some of the cellulose chains are more organizedthan others, and acids quickly break down the disorganized regions while leavingthe more orderly ones intact¹⁷. Nanocellulose is extracted fromlignocellulosic biomass using the two-stage process in which the pre-treatmenteliminates all of the chemicals that are not cellulosic, such as lignin,hemicellulose, and others and subsequently in the next step, cellulose fibrilsare processed for removal of nanocellulose¹⁴. Nanocelluloseextraction is a multi-step, costly procedure due to the expensive chemicals,the high expenses related to building and maintenance of the equipment used inacidic conditions, and the difficulties of acid wastewater treatment for operationslike acid hydrolysis¹⁸. Microcrystalline cellulose is a primaryby-product of acid hydrolysis and amorphous cellulose is decomposed during acidhydrolysis¹⁹. Hydrolysis is significantly impacted by factors suchas reaction temperature, reaction duration, acid type, acid concentration, andfiber-acid ratio, while different particle sizes, crystallinity, morphology,thermal stability, mechanical characteristics, yields, and degrees ofpolymerization may be achieved from microcrystalline cellulose depending onvarious factors¹⁹. During acid hydrolysis, cellulose, andhemicellulose polymers are broken down into their constituent monomers and theliberated cellulose may then be used in a succession of processes, such asglucose degradation or in some other way²⁰. The crystalline domainsof the cellulose chains are released from the amorphous areas via an acidhydrolysis process, which is part of the extraction procedure²⁰.Formic, sulphurous, phosphoric, nitric, hydrochloric, and sulfuric acids mayall be used in hydrolysis however, only hydrochloric and sulphuric acids havebeen utilized in industrial processes because of their least cost and are lesstoxic in nature²⁰. Though a variety of acids may be used for acidhydrolysis, sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) is the most commonlyused²¹. Sulphuric acid is often used in acid hydrolysis, thesulphate ions esterify the hydroxyl group, allowing the nanocrystallinecellulose to be successfully partitioned and disseminated as a stable colloidsystem¹⁷. The separation of cellulose chains and finally thedissolution of cellulose (Figure 3) by the breaking of intra and inter-molecularhydrogen bonds among hydroxyl groups in cellulose can be accomplished with theinteractions among sulphuric acid and cellulose²². Pre-treatment using concentrated sulphuricacid help in breaking down the crystalline arrangement of the cellulose²².

Figure 3: Cellulose dissolution mechanism (adopted from Kong-Win Chang et al., 2018)22. Click here to View Figure

Time,temperature, and acid concentration are important factors in determining thefinal nanocellulose characteristics while the most important disadvantage ofacid hydrolysis is the formation of acid wastewater during washing to enablethe pH value neutralization of the nitrocellulose solution¹⁷. Afteracid hydrolyzing lignocellulosic biomass, the resulting particles which arethin, rod, or whisker-shaped are known as cellulose nanocrystals are almostpure cellulose particles known by different names such as nanocrystallinecellulose, cellulose whiskers, or cellulose nano whiskers¹⁸.Purification of the cellulose fibers through a series of chemical processes isnecessary to get cellulose nanocrystals²⁰. During the esterificationprocess with the hydroxyl groups on the cellulose surface, the anionic sulphateester groups form a negative electrostatic layer on the surface of thenanocrystals, facilitating their dispersal in water²¹. At 60-70% H₂SO₄for 10-12 minutes at temperatures between 40 °C and 80 °C, acid hydrolysisgenerally includes 5-15 g of fiber per 100 cm³ of acid dissolution²¹.The amorphous parts of cellulose are separated from the crystalline sections byhydronium ions penetrating the cellulose chain in an acid process andhydrolyzing the glucosidic linkages between the amorphous areas and it shouldbe noted that based on the plant and extraction procedure, the nanocrystalsmight have different sizes, shapes, and crystallinities²¹. Isolatingmicrocrystalline cellulose from various natural sources for use in functionalgoods of high-added value is still a topic of active study and numeroustechniques have been documented for isolating microcrystalline cellulose fromlignocellulosic wastes, such as the use of sodium chlorite, followed by NaOHand acid hydrolysis, to produce it from sisal fibers; the mercerization of 12%NaOH at normal room temperature for 2 hours; the acid hydrolysis of theresulting mercerized material; and finally the treatment of the resultingmercerized material with NaOH; and the use of phosphotungstic acid²³.After washing, the pH of a combination may be neutralized by adding cold waterand spinning the mixture in a centrifuge²⁴. The pH value can also beneutralized by washing using an alkaline such as sodium hydroxide²⁴.For isolating nanocellulose, researchers hydrolyzed biomass using 47% sulfuricacid, and upon completion of the reaction, the acid was washed away usingdeionized water and centrifugation, the suspension was neutralized using 0.5 Nsodium hydroxide, and the whole thing was washed again using distilled water²⁴.A catalyst named 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) and the majoroxidant, hypochlorite, may transform the hydroxyl group of the cellulose tocarboxylates whereby the end product is nano fibrillated cellulose, which is3–4 nm in diameter and a few microns in length, high aspect ratio, and has acarboxylic acid surface²⁵. By dissolving TEMPO and NaBr in high-pHwater and then adding sodium Hypochlorite to start the oxidation,TEMPO-mediated oxidation can be achieved. The TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO₂oxidation method may also be employed in neutral or somewhat acidic conditionsand the application areas for TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers include flexibleand see-through displays, gas-barrier films used for packaging, and nanofiberfillers used for composite materials²⁵. The cellulosic fibers mustbe subjected to a mechanical disintegration procedure that induces fiberdelamination separating the nanometric fibers and large amounts of energy arerequired to ensure the efficiency of the nano-fibrillation process¹³.Many variations of pre-treatments for cellulose fiber before nano-fibrillationare available¹³. The crystallinity and thermal stability of theproduced nanocellulose significantly improved when compared with those of thenatural wood fibers and when significant shear force was applied to cellulosefibers, the cellulose fibers adhered along their longitudinal axis, isolatingthe fibrils and producing nano-fibrillated cellulose²⁶.High-pressure homogenization, ultrasonication, and ball milling were the mostcommonly used mechanical procedures²⁶. Conversion of cellulose intoglucose may be achieved using enzymes that help to catalyze the breakup of thecellulose polymer into small branches of the polymer²⁷. Enzymatichydrolysis is a viable option for producing nanocellulose, but is still a workin progress compared to alkaline and acid methods²⁷. Enzymatichydrolysis breaks down or alters cellulose fibers with the use of enzymes andthe biological treatments using enzymes often require only moderate conditions,but a lengthy period of operation therefore enzymatic hydrolysis is oftencombined with other techniques²⁶. The process of enzymatichydrolysis using laccase was investigated for its potential use in separatingthe cellulose fibers from the wood chips after pre-treatment with an ionicliquid to increase the available area at the surface²⁶. The processof high-pressure homogenization mostly involved the introduction of a celluloseslurry into a pressurized, fast-moving vessel and thereby the cellulosemicrofibrils were shattered into nanometer-sized pieces through impact forceand shear force in the fluid²⁸. When high-pressure homogenizationwas used to separate nanocellulose from sugarcane bagasse, the nanocelluloseproduced exhibited a size range of 10-20 nm and less crystallinity when comparedwith the starting material²⁸. The resulting material had a diameterof about 20 nm but exhibited weaker thermal stability and crystallinity incomparison to the raw cotton cellulose when high-pressure homogenization wasused to separate nanocellulose from cotton cellulose²⁸. Thedisruption of cellulose’s intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bondingduring the high-pressure homogenization process resulted in reducedcrystallinity²⁸. When cellulose fiber was subjected to ultrasonication,the hydrodynamic forces of the ultrasound broke down the cellulose fibers sothat they could be processed more easily and it was also found that theultrasonication technique generates mechanical oscillating power by havingmolecules of a liquid absorb ultrasonic energy, which causes the development,expansion, and implosion of small gas bubbles²⁹. A mechanical methodcalled ball milling defibrillates cellulose fibers wherein the shear forcesbetween the balls and the jar’s surface, as well as those between the ballsthemselves, are generated by the centrifugal force generated by the jar’srotation and thereby the cellulose fibrils are broken down to a smallerdiameter²⁹. The biggest problem of mechanical technique, however, isthe considerable energy consumption, and consequently, various pre-treatmentmethods are often used in conjunction with the mechanical process to reduceenergy consumption²⁹. The principal conventional extractionprocedures are sulfuric acid hydrolysis for nanocrystalline cellulose synthesisand nano-fibrillated cellulose production using mechanical treatment.Envisaging the thermal behaviour of microcrystalline cellulose under thermalstresses may also be done with the use of differential thermal analysis,differential scanning calorimetry, and thermogravimetric analysis and it isvery significant to note that the origin and separation method has asignificant impact on the diameter of microcrystalline cellulose fibers¹⁴.Microcrystalline cellulose is a refined wood pulp product³⁰.Microcrystalline cellulose can be used as an extender, anti-caking agent,viscosity-increasing agent, texturizer, emulsifier, abrasive, binder, bulkingagent, emulsion stabilizer, slip modifier, and bulking agent³⁰. Microcrystallinecellulose may also be used as an alternative to carboxymethylcellulose and invitamin supplements³⁰. Microcrystalline cellulose is known for itseffectiveness as a thickener, stabilizer, and emulsifier and therefore has manyuses in the cosmetics industry³⁰.

Thesize of the particle, capability to absorb moisture, the amount of moisturepresent, density, compressibility index, powder porosity, crystallinity index,hydration swelling capacity, crystallite size, and mechanical engineering propertieslike tensile strength and hardness are taken into account when determiningmicrocrystalline cellulose viability for industrial use¹⁴. Nanocellulose’s biodegradability and exceptional qualities (good mechanicalstrength, excellent thermal characteristics in conjunction with low weight andhigh transparency) make it a desirable material for use in a wide variety ofcontexts, including nanocomposite constructions, surface-modified substances,translucent papers with novel features, filler in polymer matrices, create avariety of products including the blade of a wind turbine, lightweight armor,and flexible batteries³¹. Nanocellulose derived from soybeans whenadded to different types of synthetic polymers showed that the nanocellulosereinforced polymers were substantially stronger and stiffer than the pure basepolymers³¹. Nanocellulose has a large area on the surface and a hugeconcentration of hydroxyl groups making it a valuable material for accomplishingsurface modification³². Direct chemical alteration or covalentinteraction with the surface hydroxyl groups of nanocellulose and polymergrafting from nanocellulose is a common method for modifying the grafted polymersand nanocomposite materials³². One of the nanocellulose surfacemodification applications is the fabrication of amphiphilic surfaces. Anamphiphilic surface is resistant to damage from both polar and non-polarliquids and surface features such as self-cleaning, anti-bacterial,anti-reflective, resistance to corrosion, etc., are related to anti-wettingcharacteristics³³. Nanocellulose increases the hydrophobization ofsubstrates by chemical means resulting in a wettability shift³³.Nanocellulose is modified by reacting with its hydroxyl groups for a wide rangeof uses and qualities, including etherification, silylation, carbonylation, andamidation³³. Nanocellulose was used in the medical professionbecause of its non-toxic, renewable, strong biocompatibility, and outstandingphysical qualities³⁴. Nanofibrillated cellulose extracted frombleached birch pulps was found to be biocompatible with skin transplant donorsites when used in dressing wounds wherein it was observed that thenanocellulose bandage stuck securely to the wound and peeled off easily afterthe skin was healed³⁴. Nanocellulose has the potential to be used ina variety of other medical applications including medication delivery intotargeted cells, soft tissue implants, and replacement of blood vessels.Nanocrystalline cellulose having functionalized chains at both ends, like thenew hairy cellulose nano crystalloid, has several potential applications³⁵.Scientists were able to isolate nanocellulose from a sheet of softwood pulpwith the help of a chemical process that yielded nanocrystalline celluloses withvarying carboxyl concentrations in their projecting chains, each of whichaffected the surface charge³⁵. Nanocrystalline cellulose withcarboxylated chains is appropriate as the carrier for nanomedicine since itdoes not clump in serum and may be taken up by different cells³⁵.Modifications were attempted to electrostatically stabilize nanocrystallinecellulose to create transparent films. The films, which were composed ofcarboxyl groups in extended chains of electrostatically stabilizednanocrystalline cellulose had a light transmittance of 87% and when treatedwith trichloromethyl silane, the clear films also displayed hydrophobicity³⁶.The potential uses of biodegradable films are flexible packaging and filtrationof copper ions out of wastewater³⁶.Researchers used periodate/chlorite oxidation to remove theelectrostatically stabilized nanocrystalline cellulose from wood fibers,resulting in nanocrystalline cellulose with decarboxylated projecting chains,which resulted in the electrostatically stabilized nanocrystalline cellulosebeing effective in removing copper at concentrations as high as 185 mg/g³⁶.Another potential use for nanocellulose is in the treatment of wastewater byremoving metal ions. Aerogels containing bifunctional hairy nanocrystallinecellulose and carboxymethylated chitosan were effectively produced bycross-linking and the negative charges and high porosity of these biodegradableaerogels allowed them to effectively absorb methylene blue dye at a rate of upto 785 mg/g showing the path for the development of novel nanocellulose basedbio-adsorbents³⁶. When material strength, flexibility, andspecialized nano structuration are required, nanocellulose is a viable materialand phosphorylated nanocellulose has a wide range of uses such as a support forcatalysts, adsorbents, and bone scaffolds³⁷. Nanocellulose has foundattention as a nanoscale material for the reinforcement of polymer matrixcomposites due to its mechanical characteristics, renewability, andbiodegradability. Nanocellulose has gained importance on account of itsabundant availability, superior mechanical and optical properties, goodbiocompatibility, and applications in material science to biomedicalengineering³⁸. Nanocellulose surface chemical functional capabilityhas been explored for the ensuing applications in the key fields ofnanocellulose research, including drug administration, bio-sensing/bio-imaging,tissue regeneration, and bio-printing³⁸. Researchers areincreasingly interested in creating ecologically acceptable extraction methodsdue to the enormous potential of cellulose nanoparticles⁸. The cellulose nanocrystals exhibit differentproperties as physical and chemical surface functionalization renders them intodifferent functional groups and as a result, the cellulose nanocrystals havethe potential to be used in many applications apart from being used in avariety of applications relating to composites, packing, cosmetics, food,optoelectronic devices, biomedical and pharmacy⁴. Nanocellulosebeing environmentally friendly and biodegradable can be used as an alternativebiomaterial to synthetic materials and cellulose nanocomposites are used inelectronics, vehicles, medical, building, packaging, and wastewater treatmentapplications³⁹.

Characterization and a good understanding ofnanocellulose properties can be obtained using different analytical techniques³⁹. Thecarious nanocellulose characterization techniques are shown in Figure 4.Dimensional analysis of nanocellulose can be performed using microscopictechniques like field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM),transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) whileit has also been reported that AFM can be used to investigate the topography,morphology and mechanical properties of nanocellulose³⁹. Dynamiclight scattering (DLS) technique is employed to find the hydrodynamic size andit has been reported that the DLS method gives data about the apparent diameterwhich can be used in combination with other methods to check the consistency ofcellulose nanocrystals and the size change throughout time³⁹.Investigations concerning the rheological properties of the aqueousnanocellulose suspension are essential since the rheological propertiesinfluence the making, processing, and combination of nanocellulose with differentmaterials in industrial uses³⁹. Thecomposition of elemental nature on the surface of the nanocellulose can bestudied using the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) method, while the factorsrelating to the molecular arrangement and purity of the nanocellulose can beascertained with the help of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method andfurther data regarding the conformation regarding the presence of the carbonatoms in cellulose can be provided by MNR spectroscopy³⁹. It isreported that thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanningcalorimetry (DSC), and differential thermogravimetry (DTG) techniques are usedto determine the thermal stability of nanocellulose³⁹.

Figure 4: Nanocellulose characterization techniques (adopted from Kaur et al., 2021)39. Click here to View Figure

Conclusion

Theword nanocellulose is commonly used interchangeably with microcellulose, bothof which refer to specific kinds of cellulosic particles. Biomass is a goodsource of raw material for nanocellulose synthesis and its high value-addedapplications. Depending on the structure, cellulosic fibers may be broken downinto nanocellulose, which is a material with very precise diameter and lengthdimensions. Due to the crystalline structure of cellulose, nanocellulose may beextracted from lignocellulosic biomass using methods that break down thecellulose strands into either cellulose nanocrystals or cellulose nanofiber.The most common approaches for generating cellulose nanocrystals and cellulosenanofiber are acid hydrolysis and mechanical treatments, however, both theseapproaches have problems concerning the environmental and economic aspects suchas the energy requirement for the process and also the significant amount ofwater needed in the neutralization stages. Enzymatic hydrolysis is anotherviable option for manufacturing nanocellulose, with the benefits of enzymatictreatments providing an ecologically benign and sustainable solution, despitethe enzyme cost potentially being an inconvenience. To promote cellulose bundlefibrillation and minimize energy needs for separation operations, research isfocused on the use of enzymes coupled together with mechanical treatments.Cellulose nanofibers can be obtained through enzymatic and/or mechanicalfragmentation processes. Rod-shaped, highly crystalline cellulose nanocrystalsare typically realized with the help of hydrolysis with concentrated mineralacids. Nanocellulose has a wide range of potential uses because of itshigh-quality mechanical, optical, and thermal qualities. Nanocellulose-basedmaterials are related to biomedicine, packaging of food materials/products,mechanical reinforcement of matrices, membrane filtration, nanocomposites,gels, viscosity transformers, aerogels, films, fibers, barrier layers, foams,and applications on energy. Technological and financial hurdles should beovercome before implementing mass manufacturing. Many additional agriculturalwastes may be explored for the extraction of nanocellulose and furtherpreparation of new composite materials for industrial and commercial applications.

Conflict of Interest

Thereis no conflict of interest to bereported. No funding was received from any funding agency for the work relatedto this article.

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By chem xpert|2023-11-01T05:47:14+00:00October 30, 2023|Volume 39, Number 5|Comments Off on Nanocellulose from Agricultural Waste – A Concise Insight into Extraction and Applications

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